Digital video signature apparatus and methods for use with video program identification systems

ABSTRACT

Digital video signature apparatus and methods for use with video program identification systems are disclosed. The example apparatus and methods generate a signature associated with a video program. An example system includes a frame scanner to scan video frames associated with the video program. The frame scanner is to select a video frame based on a number of intra-coded macro blocks within the video frame. The example system also includes an intra-coded macro block extractor to extract intra-coded macro blocks from the video frame and a scaled image extractor to extract a scaled image from the intra-coded macro blocks. A signature generator is also included in the example system to calculate a plurality of centroids associated with video frame based on the scaled image and to form the signature based on the plurality of centroids.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This patent is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.12/845,660, which was filed on Jul. 28, 2010, which is a continuation ofU.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/372,582, now U.S. Pat. No.7,793,318, which was filed on Mar. 10, 2006, which is a continuation ofPCT/US03/29219, which was filed on Sep. 12, 2003, all of which arehereby incorporated by reference in their entireties

FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE

The present disclosure relates generally to identifying digital videoinformation and, more specifically, to digital video signature apparatusand methods for use with video program identification systems.

BACKGROUND

Systems that identify video images and/or sequences of video images(e.g., television commercials or programs) being broadcast and/or viewedon an output device (e.g., a television or video monitor) are often usedto verify that certain audio and/or video content or programs (e.g.,television programs, advertisements, etc.) have been broadcast inparticular geographic regions at particular times. Of course, such videoidentification system may additionally or alternatively be used tofacilitate the analysis of viewing behaviors of selected groups ofviewers. Some video identification systems identify programs byextracting audio and/or video information associated with a programcurrently being broadcast and/or viewed and processing that extractedinformation to generate audio and/or video signatures. Typically, theaudio and/or video signatures are digital sequences or codes that, at agiven instant of time, are substantially unique to each portion ofaudio/video content or program. In this manner, an unidentified videoprogram can be reliably identified by finding a matching signaturewithin a database or library containing the signatures of knownavailable programs. When a matching signature is found, the previouslyunidentified audio/video content (e.g., television program,advertisement, etc.) is identified as the one of the known availableprograms corresponding to the matching database signature.

Video signatures may be generated for analog and/or digital videoprograms. Some known video signature generation techniques for use withdigital video program information process some or all of theuncompressed image data for one or more video frames to generate one ormore signatures for the video program associated with the video frames.However, using uncompressed video data to generate signature informationusually requires expensive high-speed signature generation hardware orcircuitry, or software/processor-based signature generation techniquesthat result in relatively slow signature generation rates. For someapplications, such as, for example, television audience viewing behavioranalysis or other program verification or identification systems thatuse data acquisition and signature generation devices, high speedhardware-based video signature generation systems are cost prohibitive.In addition, many software-based signature generation systems are tooslow and may miss important verification and/or viewing information suchas, for example, relatively short television commercials or the like.

In some software-based systems, the speed at which video signatures aregenerated may be increased by using less video information (e.g., fewerframes, smaller portions of each frame, etc.) to generate the signatureinformation. However, the use of less information usually results in asignature that is less likely to uniquely represent the associated videocontent, thereby resulting in an increased false match rate (i.e.,incorrectly identifying a video program) and an increased failure tofind a match when a match exists (i.e., the failure to identify a knownvideo program).

Still further, the video signature generation systems used with manyvideo program identification systems are not independent of image formator encoder operation. For example, changing the display aspect ratio(e.g., from 4:3 to 16:9) for a video program may significantly changethe video signature information generated therefrom. As a result, whilethese known systems may be able to reliably identify a group of knownimages/frames and, thus, known programs when formatted for a 4:3 aspectratio display, these same systems may fail to identify any of thoseknown programs when formatted using a different aspect ratio. Similarly,many of these known systems are also sensitive to video program framerate (e.g., the number of frames per second that compose a videoprogram). For example, while many known systems may be able to reliablyidentify video programs that are composed of frames or images that areto be displayed at a rate of thirty frames per second, those samesystems may be unable to identify those same programs when composed ofmore or fewer frames or images per second.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 depicts an example sequence of compressed digital video images orframes that may be associated with a digital television program.

FIG. 2 is a block diagram of an example system that may employ theexample digital video signature generation apparatus and methodsdescribed herein to identify video programs.

FIG. 3 is a more detailed block diagram of an example manner in whichthe data acquisition unit shown in FIG. 2 may be implemented.

FIG. 4 is an example processor-based system that executes software orinstructions stored on a machine readable medium to implement theexample data acquisition unit shown in FIG. 2 with the blocks shown inFIG. 3.

FIG. 5 is flow diagram depicting one manner in which the processor-basedsystem shown in FIG. 4 may be programmed to implement the example dataacquisition unit shown in FIG. 3.

FIG. 6 is an example of an image or frame for which a signature can begenerated using a center of mass or centroid calculation.

FIG. 7 depicts an example image or frame in which image components aredistributed in a non-uniform manner.

FIG. 8 depicts an example image in which a centroid is located within ashape boundary.

FIGS. 9 and 10 depict example images or frames in which centroids arenot located within the boundary of the shapes therein.

FIGS. 11 and 12 are example images or frames that contain relativelysymmetric distributions of a particular image component.

FIG. 13 depicts an example frame or image that contains three identicalelliptical shapes composed of the same image component.

FIGS. 14 and 15 depict an example method that may be implemented by thesystem shown in FIG. 2 to identify video programs.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The example video signature methods and apparatus disclosed herein canbe used to generate signature information for a sequence of images orframes composed of compressed digital video information. The generatedsignature information may subsequently be compared to referencesignature information to identify a video program from which thesequence of images or frames originated. However, before discussing theexample video signature apparatus and methods in detail, a briefdiscussion relating to digital video signal compression is providedbelow.

The following discussion is based primarily on the Moving PicturesExpert Group (MPEG) video compression standard. The MPEG standard is oneparticularly well-known digital video compression standard that may beused in conjunction with the example signature generation methods andapparatus described herein. However, MPEG video compression techniquesare only one particular manner in which digital video information may becompressed prior to its use with the example signature generationmethods and apparatus disclosed herein. Those having ordinary skill inthe art will appreciate that the example video signature apparatus andmethods disclosed herein may be similarly applied in conjunction withother digital video compression schemes.

In general, video compression schemes operate based on the assumptionthat video sequences or programs typically contain a relatively largeamount of temporally and/or spatially redundant information. Temporalredundancy occurs between successive frames or images making up a videosequence because there are relatively few changes to the color andbrightness of large portions of the successive images or frames makingup the video sequence. On the other hand, spatial redundancy occurswithin a given video frame or image because adjacent pixels or areaswithin an image or frame are often of the same or similar color andintensity or brightness. Thus, by eliminating temporally and spatiallyredundant video information from a video program prior to itstransmission, the amount of bandwidth required to transmit the videoprogram can be reduced dramatically.

The data reduction achieved by a compression scheme is commonlyexpressed as a compression ratio. Compression ratios are usuallycalculated by dividing the amount of video data making up an originalsequence of video images by the amount of compressed data used totransmit that video data. Compression ratios of between about 8:1 andabout 30:1 are commonly achieved using an MPEG-based video compressionscheme.

Video compression schemes also typically eliminate certain types andamounts of video information that are not necessarily redundant andwhich may be eliminated without being perceptibly noticeable oroffensive to the human eye. For example, the human eye is significantlymore sensitive to variations in brightness than variations in color orhue. As a result, as described below, video compression schemes oftenreduce the amount of digital information pertaining to color or huewithout adversely impacting the perceived quality of an image extractedfrom compressed image information. In addition, the human eye hasgreater difficulty perceiving rapid variation of brightness and/orcolor, shade or hue across an image (i.e., the higher frequencycomponents that compose an image). As a result, as described below,video compression schemes can zero-out and/or eliminate the transmissionor processing of the higher frequency components of an image withoutadversely impacting the perceived quality of the image.

FIG. 1 depicts an example sequence 100 of digital video images or frames102, 104, 106 and 108 that may be associated with a digital televisionprogram or the like. The images or frames 102-108 may make up a group ofpictures (GOP) for purposes of MPEG encoding (i.e., compression) to betransmitted, stored or otherwise conveyed for use by an MPEG decoderassociated with an output device (e.g., a television, video monitor,computer screen, etc.)

Initially, each of the images or frames 102-108 is composed ofuncompressed digital information representing display pixels arranged ina plurality of rows and columns to be displayed on an output device in aparticular format at a particular rate. For example, each of the frames102-108 may contain sufficient pixel information to display images orframes on a raster scan-based display having 480 rows or lines of 720pixels (i.e., columns) at a rate of 30 frames per second. Of course,many other display formats and rates could be used instead.

The amount of digital data required to represent each pixel within eachof the frames or images 102-108 depends on the color model used tocreate the images 102-108. For example, in the case where the well-knownRed, Green, Blue (RGB) color model is used, eight bits are used torepresent the amount of each image or color component used for eachpixel. Thus, for a digital image generated using the RGB color model, atotal of twenty-four bits of data are required to represent each pixel.

During the MPEG compression processes, each of the images or frames102-108 is ultimately sub-divided into a sequence of macro blocks, eachof which is composed of 16×16 pixels (i.e., sixteen rows of sixteenpixels). The resulting sequences of macro blocks are maintained in araster scan order. By way of example, the image or frame 104 issub-divided into a sequence of macro blocks 110 that is composed of atleast macro blocks 112, 114, 116 and 118, each of which includes RGBdata for 16×16 or 256 pixels.

The MPEG compression process converts the RGB data (i.e., thetwenty-four bits of information) for each pixel within the macro blocks112-118 into the well-known YUV color model. In general, the YUV colormodel represents each pixel using a luminance value denoted as Y and twochrominance values denoted as Cr and Cb. However, because the human eyeis significantly less sensitive to color changes, the MPEG compressionprocess decimates the chrominance information for each of the macroblocks via a horizontal and vertical (i.e., row and column) sub-samplingprocess. In particular, the decimation process averages the chrominanceinformation (i.e., the Cr and Cb values) for groups of four pixelsarranged in two rows and two columns, discards the individualchrominance values making up the averages and retains the averagevalues. In this manner, the MPEG compression process compresses thechrominance information required to display an image by a factor of fourwithout adversely affecting the perceptible quality of the image whendisplayed to a human.

By way of example, following the color model conversion and chrominancedecimation processes, the macro block 118 includes four 8×8 luminanceblocks 120, 122, 124 and 126 and two 8×8 chrominance blocks 128 and 130,together representing the color and intensity of the group of 16×16pixels associated with the macro block 118. Each of the blocks 120-130is composed of eight rows and eight columns of eight bit values (i.e.,bytes). For example, the luminance block 126 is composed of a grid 132where each of the squares of the grid 132 represents an eight bitluminance value associated with a particular pixel within the macroblock 118. Of course, because the chrominance information has beendecimated as described above, each of the eight bit values within the8×8 chrominance blocks 128 and 130 represents the average colorinformation for a group of four pixels associated with the macro block118.

After converting the color model and decimating the chrominanceinformation, the MPEG compression scheme processes the images or frames102-108, which are now represented using the decimated YUV data, toeliminate or reduce temporal redundancy. The MPEG compression schemeuses motion-compensated inter-frame prediction to reduce the amount ofdata required to regenerate a sequence of video frames. In general, theMPEG compression scheme periodically generates reference frames (knownas Intra-frames or I-frames) that are essentially still video imagesthat can be regenerated (i.e., displayed) without reference to any otherframes or images. A series of video frames preceding and/or following areference frame or I-frame are either Predictive-frames (commonly knownas P-frames) or Bidirectionally predictive-frames (commonly known asB-frames). P-frames contain motion vectors and error informationrelating the P-frame to an I-frame or to a preceding P-frame, whileB-frames contain motion vectors and error information relating topreceding and/or subsequent I-frames or P-frames. Because substantialportions (e.g., a background) of a video image typically do not changesignificantly (or at all) from one frame to the next (i.e., there is asignificant amount of temporal redundancy), the amount of informationneeded to represent each P-frame and B-frame can be significantly lessthan the amount of information needed to represent an I-frame.

During an MPEG compression process, each of the frames or images 102-108making up the video sequence 100 are designated by the MPEG encoder asone of an I-frame, a P-frame or a B-frame. The relatively complex mannerin which the MPEG compression process designates frames as I-frames,P-frames and B-frames is well-known in the art and is not described infurther detail herein. However, for purposes of understanding theexample video signature generation apparatus and methods disclosedherein, it should be recognized that the creation of P-frames andB-frames occurs on a block-by-block basis (i.e., one macro block at atime). As a result, if during the MPEG compression process it isrecognized that predicting a particular macro block within a P-frame ora B-frame will not improve compression, that particular macro block willbe intra-coded (i.e., not predicted but, rather, fully described usingactual luminance and chrominance data that can be directly converted fordisplay purposes).

Once the MPEG compression process has reduced or eliminated temporallyredundant inter-frame information by converting a sequence of videoimages into a sequence of I-frames, P-frames and B-frames, the MPEGcompression scheme processes these frames to remove spatial redundancy.The MPEG compression scheme recognizes that within a given 16×16 pixelmacro block there is typically a repeatable pattern of pixel informationand/or the pixel information does not vary significantly (e.g.,perceptibly) across the macro block.

To eliminate the spatially redundant information, the MPEG compressionscheme uses a discrete cosine transform (DCT) to convert each of the 8×8blocks making up the macro blocks of the I-frames, P-frames and B-framesfrom the spatial domain into the frequency domain. In the spatialdomain, each square (i.e., byte) within an 8×8 block corresponds to aphysical pixel location, whereas in the frequency domain, each squarewithin the 8×8 block produced by the DCT conversion corresponds to afrequency of a cosine waveform. Because there is typically very littlevariation in intensity and color across a 16×16 pixel macro block, mostmacro blocks can be represented in the frequency domain using a directcurrent (DC) component (i.e., a zero frequency component or offset) andfew, if any, low frequency components. As is well known, the DCT of an8×8 block of spatial pixel information (e.g., an 8×8 block of luminanceinformation where each square within the block represents an eight bitvalue associated with a physical pixel location) results in an 8×8 blockof frequency domain information, where each square contains an amplitudecoefficient for a cosine waveform of a particular frequency. The upperleft corner of the frequency domain block is a DC value (e.g., theaverage luminance for the 8×8 spatial domain block), and the horizontalfrequency increases moving across rows to the right of the upper leftcorner and the vertical frequency increases moving down columns. Asdescribed in greater detail below, the upper left corner of thefrequency domain block (i.e., the DC coefficient value) also representsthe value associated with the pixel in the upper left corner of theblock in the spatial domain. However, frequency coefficients within thefrequency domain block other than the DC coefficient do not correspondidentically to pixel values in the spatial domain. Thus, in general, ifspatial or pixel value information is needed for a given block, aconversion of the frequency domain block to spatial domain is required.

In practice, performing a DCT and quantization on each of the 8×8 blocksresults in frequency domain blocks having relatively few coefficientvalues near the upper left corner of the 8×8 frequency domain blocks anda relatively large number of zero value or same value coefficients inthe majority of the squares making up the remainders of the blocks. Byusing a run-length encoding scheme and not individually transmitting thecoefficients having the same value (e.g., coefficients having a value ofzero), the MPEG compression process can substantially reduce the amountof data needed to reconstitute the compressed image without perceptiblydegrading the image quality.

To illustrate the manner in which spatially redundant information can beeliminated, consider an 8×8 block of pixel luminance information suchas, for example, the block 126 of FIG. 1. If the luminance is constant(e.g., a digital value of 128) across the block 126, each of theluminance values associated with the 64 squares making up the grid 132will contain the value 128. Performing a DCT on such an 8×8 block willresult in an 8×8 block in which the upper left corner square containsthe DC value 128 and all other squares or frequency domain coefficientsare equal to zero. Thus, in the frequency domain, only a single valueneeds to be used (and transmitted) to represent the luminance values forall of the pixels associated with the original 8×8 spatial domain block.In other words, 63 eight bit luminance values do not have to betransmitted and processed by an MPEG decoder. Instead, using arun-length encoding scheme, a single value (i.e., 128) may betransmitted and a run length of 63, (indicating 63 zeros), may betransmitted to the MPEG decoder.

In general, the MPEG compression process achieves relatively highcompression ratios by employing techniques such as, for example,frequency coefficient quantization (e.g., reducing the number of bitsneeded or allocated for each frequency domain coefficient), and zigzagsequence coding in conjunction with run-length encoding to eliminate theindividual transmission of coefficients having the same value. However,such techniques are well-known in the art and, thus, are not discussedfurther herein.

FIG. 2 is a block diagram of an example system 200 that may employ theexample digital video signature generation apparatus and methodsdescribed herein to identify video programs. The system 200 includes ademodulator 202 that receives a digital program data stream 204. Thedigital program data stream 204 may be a multi-program data stream thatis broadcast via any desired method. For example, the digital programdata stream 204 may be a multi-program digital television data streamthat is broadcast using any desired combination of wirelesscommunication links such as, for example, satellite communication links,cellular communication links, or other wireless terrestrialcommunication links. Alternatively or additionally, the digital programdata stream 204 may be transmitted via any desired combination ofhardwired communication paths including cables, phone lines, etc.

For purposes of the following discussion, the example digital programdata stream 204 is assumed to include one or more digital video programsthat have been compressed and formatted according to the MPEG standardas described by way of example in connection with FIG. 1. The MPEGpackets making up the video frame or image information for each of thedigital video programs may be encapsulated using any desired transportprotocol.

The demodulator 202 may extract a base band signal containing amulti-program digital data stream and a transport circuit forreconstructing data packets associated with a desired program from thedigital program data stream 204. When the demodulator 202 is tuned to aparticular channel, it reconstructs the MPEG data packets from thedigital program data stream 204 that corresponds to the selectedprogram.

The system 200 also includes a data acquisition unit 206 that is coupledto the demodulator 202. The data acquisition unit 206 selects compresseddigital video information 208 (e.g., MPEG I-frames, P-frames andB-frames) associated with a video program currently output by thedemodulator 202. As described in greater detail below, the dataacquisition unit 206 selects frames or images from the compresseddigital video information 208 that are substantially intra-coded (i.e.,frames or images containing a substantial percentage of intra-codedmacro blocks) and generates signature information for the video programbased on those substantially intra-coded frames or images. Morespecifically, the data acquisition unit 206 extracts scaled imageinformation (e.g., by extracting the DC coefficient information) fromthe selected substantially intra-coded frequency domain blocks and usesthe scaled image information to calculate center of mass or centroidinformation for each of the brightness and color components for each ofa series of the substantially intra-coded images or frames. Each of theimages or frames may also be recursively sub-divided into a plurality ofsub-regions or areas and center of mass information may be similarlygenerated for each of the sub-regions or areas. In any event, eachsubstantially intra-coded frame or image can be substantially uniquelyrepresented by a signature composed of a plurality of centers of mass orcentroid values associated with the components (e.g., colors,brightness, etc.) of the overall image or frame and any definedsub-regions or areas of the image or frame.

The data acquisition unit 206 is communicatively coupled to a centralprocessing unit 210 via a communication link 212. The communication link212 may be implemented using any desired combination of hardwired andwireless communication links and any desired combination ofcommunication protocols or schemes. For example, the communication link212 may be implemented as a local area network, or any other network,and/or may include the use of phone lines, a packet switched networksuch as, for example, the Internet, or any other types of communicationlinks.

The central processing unit 210 also includes a non-volatile memory ormass storage device 214. The memory or mass storage device 214 may beimplemented using, for example, a disk drive that stores digitalinformation using a magnetic or optical media. Additionally oralternatively, the memory or mass storage device 214 may be implementedusing an electrically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM) orthe like. Although not shown in FIG. 2, additional data acquisitionunits similar or identical to the data acquisition unit 206 may becommunicatively coupled to the central processing unit 210.

The data acquisition unit 206 sends signatures generated (as generallyset forth above) in connection with a sequence of video images or framesassociated with a currently selected video program to the centralprocessing unit 210 via the communication link 212. The centralprocessing unit 210 is configured to compare the sequence of signaturesreceived from the data acquisition unit 206 to a plurality of known orreference signatures that are associated with known video programs andwhich are stored within a data structure (e.g., a table) within thenon-volatile memory 214. In the event that the central processing unit210 determines that a signature sequence received from the dataacquisition unit 206 matches or substantially matches a referencesignature sequence associated with a known video program, the centralprocessing unit 210 identifies the video program selected by thedemodulator 202.

The demodulator 202 and the data acquisition unit 206 may be locatedwithin a private home or other residence or, alternatively, may belocated within a business facility or any other structure. Preferably,the system 200 is located so that the broadcast signals that are to beconsumed and/or verified can be easily detected and received. Of course,other such decoders and data acquisition units (none of which are shown)may be similarly located within other locations and communicativelycoupled to the central processing unit 210 via the communication link212 and/or via other communication links (none of which are shown). Inthis manner, statistically significant viewing behavior and/or programverification information for a designated population of persons orgeographic area may be ascertained by the central processing unit 210.

The system 200 may further include a central facility 216 thatcommunicates with the central processing unit 210 via a communicationlink 218, which may be implemented using a wide area network includingphone lines, wireless communications and/or any other desiredcommunication media and/or protocols. The link 218 may be implementedusing a wide area network including phone lines, wireless communicationsand/or any other desired communication media and/or protocols. Thecentral facility 216 may process signature information and/or otherprogram-related information received from the central processing unit210 and/or other processing units (none of which are shown). Forexample, in the event that the central processing unit 210 fails toidentify a program, video clip, etc., using signature information, thatsignature information and the associated video clip may be conveyed tothe central facility 216 via the link 218. At the central facility 216the signature information may be compared to signatures stored within alibrary of signatures within (or at least accessible to) the centralfacility 216. Such a signature library may be complied by receivingsignature information from a variety of sources such as, for example,other central processing units (not shown) and/or data acquisition units(not shown). Additionally or alternatively, if the signature informationreceived by the central facility 216 does not match any of the signatureinformation already present in the library accessible to or within thecentral facility 216, the program, video clip, etc. associated with thesignature information is viewed and identified by a human operator. Thehuman operator may then add a signature for that program, video clip,etc. to the signature library.

While the data acquisition unit 206 is shown in FIG. 2 as a separatestructure, the functions of the data acquisition unit 206 may instead beintegrated within the demodulator 202 or the central data processingunit 210. Alternatively, the functions of the data acquisition unit 206could be distributed between the demodulator 202, the central processingunit 210 and/or other similar or identical units within or at leastaccessible by the system 200.

FIG. 3 is a more detailed block diagram of an example manner in whichthe data acquisition unit 206 shown in FIG. 2 may be implemented. Asshown in FIG. 3, the example data acquisition unit 206 includes a framescanner 300 that receives the compressed digital video information 208,which contains frequency domain image information, and scans theindividual images or frames (i.e., I-frames, P-frames, B-frames, etc.)therein to determine, for each image or frame, whether that image orframe contains a sufficient quantity of intra-coded macro blocks forsubsequent processing by the remaining functional blocks of the dataacquisition unit 206. As described in greater detail in connection withFIG. 4 below, the frame scanner 300 selects frames or images having arelatively high percentage of intra-coded macro blocks to enable thedata acquisition unit 206 to generate signature information for thoseselected images or frames using a relatively small amount of processortime (i.e., processing cost or overhead). As noted above, in contrast topredictive macro blocks (e.g., P-blocks and B-blocks) intra-coded macroblocks may be converted to image information without having to performcomplex time consuming calculations involving macro block informationfrom future or subsequent frames or images. Accordingly, by selectingimages or frames having a relatively high percentage of intra-codedblocks, the data acquisition unit 206 can generate signatures rapidlyand with minimal error for those selected images or frames using onlythe intra-coded blocks. Ignoring the non-intra-coded blocks does notsignificantly affect the signature for an image or frame that iscomposed of a relatively large percentage of intra-coded macro blocks.I-frames are always sufficiently intra-coded and P-frames and B-framesmay be sufficiently intra-coded depending on the amount of intra-codedmacro blocks that are used to generate these frames.

Frames having a sufficient percentage of intra-coded macro blocks arepassed to an intra-coded block extractor 302. The intra-coded blockextractor 302 extracts intra-coded macro blocks from a selected frame orimage, which may be an I-frame or a predictive frame (e.g., P-frame orB-frame) having a relatively high percentage of intra-coded macroblocks.

A scaled image extractor 304 receives the intra-coded blocks extractedfrom a selected frame or image and extracts a downscaled image, forexample, by extracting DC coefficients (i.e., the upper left cornervalues) from the intra-coded blocks. As noted above, when conveyed usingthe MPEG compression process, the macro blocks making up an image orframe are passed through a DCT conversion and quantization that providesspatially compressed frequency domain macro block information. Ofcourse, a downscaled image may be formed using other combinations offrequency coefficients. For example, the DC coefficients andcoefficients associated with one or more other frequency components,such as coefficients in the upper left corner of macro blocks, may beextracted. However, in contrast to a case where only DC coefficients areextracted, the scaled image extractor 304 generates the downscaled imageby converting the frequency domain blocks to spatial domain pixelinformation. Thus, in general, the scaled image extractor 304 extractsdownscaled images by extracting a subset of the frequency coefficientsavailable in each intra-coded frame provided by the intra-coded blockextractor 302, thereby substantially reducing the amount of informationthat has to be processed to generate signature information, and convertthat frequency domain information to spatial domain pixel information.Of course, in the case where only DC coefficients are extracted, theconversion of frequency domain information to spatial domain informationis not necessary (and may be eliminated) because the DC coefficients inthe frequency domain also correspond to pixel values (i.e., the upperleft pixels in blocks) in the spatial domain. In any event, the scaledimage extractor 304 extracts the downscaled image information (e.g., theaverage luminance and chrominance values in the case where DCcoefficients are extracted) from the intra-coded macro blocks and passesthose downscaled images to a padding remover 306. The number offrequency coefficients used to form the downscaled image may be based onthe resolution of the image being downscaled. In particular, highresolution images may be downscaled using only DC coefficients, whereas,lower resolution images may require the extraction of a plurality offrequency coefficients from each frequency domain block to form thedownscaled image. In general, the higher the resolution the image beingdownscaled, the fewer the number of frequency coefficients that arerequired to form a downscaled image suitable for signature generationpurposes.

The padding remover 306 removes coefficients that are associated withpadded image or frame areas. As is known, digital video images or framesmay be padded (i.e., filled with known video information) to completelyfill the display area of a video frame or image. In this manner, borderareas of a displayed image or frame for which image information may notexist, can be filled with a consistent color and/or intensity to providea visually acceptable border. For example, display areas for which imageinformation is not available may be filled with a dark or gray border asopposed to allowing noise or other random video information to bedisplayed in these display areas. In particular, if a 4:3 aspect ratioimage is to be displayed without resizing or zooming on a 16:9 aspectratio output unit, padding is added to the image so that the left andright sides of the displayed image are flanked by solid colored bordersor bands. In any event, such padding is not a part of the original imageand is typically a function of the particular encoder.

After padding has been removed from the downscaled image information,the scaled image information is provided to a signature generator 308.As described in greater detail below, the signature generator 308 usesthe extracted scaled image information to generate image signaturesbased on the centers of mass or centroids of the various color andbrightness components of an overall image and sub-images or areasdefined within that overall image. In this manner, each image can bedescribed by a signature composed of a set of centroid coordinates thatis substantially uniquely characteristic of the distribution of colorand brightness within that image. Further, a series of such signaturesassociated with a series or sequence of video frames or images can beused to uniquely represent and/or identify a video program from whichthe video frames or images were extracted.

Signature information 310, which is a sequence of signatures of framesor images associated with and uniquely representative of a selectedvideo program, is conveyed to, for example, the central processing unit210 (FIG. 2). As described in greater detail below, the centralprocessing unit 210 is configured to compare the received signatureinformation 310 to reference signature information (e.g., sets ofsignature sequences representative of known video programs) to determinethe identity of a video program currently selected by the demodulator202 (FIG. 2).

FIG. 4 is an example processor-based system 400 that executes softwareor firmware instructions stored on a machine readable medium toimplement the data acquisition unit 206 (FIG. 2). The exampleprocessor-based system 400 includes a processor 402, which may be anysuitable microprocessor such as, for example, a processor from the IntelPentium® family of microprocessors. The processor 402 may becommunicatively coupled to a non-volatile memory 404 and a volatilememory 406. The non-volatile memory 404 may be implemented using, forexample, electrically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM),read only memory (ROM), etc. The volatile memory 406 may be implementedusing, for example, static random access memory (SRAM), dynamic randomaccess memory (DRAM), etc. The processor 402 may also be coupled to amass storage device 408, which may be implemented using, for example, adisk drive that stores digital information using a magnetic or opticalmedia.

The processor 402 can retrieve and execute machine readable instructionsor software programs that are stored on one or more of the memories 404and 406 and/or the mass storage device 408 to perform the functions ofthe data acquisition unit 206 (FIG. 2) and, in particular, the functionsof the blocks 300-308 shown in FIG. 3.

The processor 402 is also in communication with an input/output (I/O)unit 410, that enables the system 400 to communicate with, for example,the demodulator 202 (FIG. 2) and/or the central processing unit 210(FIG. 2). The I/O unit 410 may include circuitry for performing networkcommunication functions (e.g., Ethernet communication functions), phoneline communication functions (e.g., modem functions), peripheral devicecommunication functions (e.g., universal serial bus communications,parallel port communications, etc.) to enable the system 400 tocommunicate with one or more input devices such as, for example, amouse, keyboard, etc. and/or one or more output devices such as, forexample, a video display, a printer, etc.

FIG. 5 is flow diagram depicting one manner in which the processor-basedsystem 400 shown in FIG. 4 may be programmed to implement the exampledata acquisition unit 206 (FIG. 2). However, persons of ordinary skillin the art will appreciate that the blocks 300-308 (FIG. 3) of theexample data acquisition unit 206 (FIG. 2) may be implemented using anydesired combination of hardware and software. For example, the dataacquisition unit 206 may include one or more application specificintegrated circuits, microprocessors executing machine readableinstructions, digital logic components, analog circuitry, etc.configured to operate as blocks 300-308.

The data acquisition unit 206 (FIG. 2) receives a compressed digitalvideo frame or image from the demodulator 202 (block 500). As describedabove, the compressed video frames or images received by the dataacquisition unit 208 are compressed using the well-known MPEG standard.However, any other compression standards or techniques yielding scaledimage information (e.g., downscaled images) for the frames or imagescould be used instead.

The received compressed digital video frame or image is scanned todetermine the number or percentage of intra-coded macro blocks of whichthe frame or image is composed (block 502). The processor 402 thendetermines if the frame or image includes a sufficiently high percentageof intra-coded macro blocks (block 504). The percentage constituting asufficient percentage may vary depending on the particular application.For example, if a very low program identification failure rate isacceptable, it may be desirable to generate signatures only for entirelyintra-coded frames (I-frames or other frames that contain 100%intra-coded blocks) to maximize the amount of image information that canbe used to generate the signature information for the frames or images.On the other hand, if a higher program identification failure rate isacceptable, frames having a lesser percentage of intra-coded blocks maybe sufficiently intra-coded.

If a scanned frame is not sufficiently intra-coded (block 504), theprocessor 402 awaits another frame or image at block 500. On the otherhand, if it is determined at block 504 that a scanned image or frame issufficiently intra-coded, the processor 402 extracts the downscaledimage information (e.g., the values of the DC coefficients) from thefrequency domain macro blocks making up the image or frame (block 506).The extraction of the downscaled image at block 506 may also include aconversion to spatial domain pixel information in the case wherefrequency domain coefficients other than just the DC coefficient valuesare extracted from each frequency domain block.

The processor 402 then removes image information or image areasassociated with padding such as, for example, borders or other imageportions inserted to enable an image that may not properly fill adisplay area to be displayed in an unobjectionable manner (block 508).In this manner, the processor 402 can generate signature information forthe frame or image in a manner that does not include any videoinformation that is not part of the original image.

The information representative of the image (i.e., the downscaled imagecontaining selected pixel information), from which padding has beenremoved, may optionally be weighted (block 510). The processor 402 mayweight the downscaled image information (e.g., by multiplying each ofthe pixel values by a number ranging from zero to one) to improve therobustness of the signature generation process. For example, theprocessor 402 may weight the pixel values associated with the centerportions of an image or frame more heavily (e.g., using a multipliercloser to one) than those portions of the image or frame that are closerto the periphery of the image or frame. Weighting the central portion ofan image more heavily than the peripheral portions of an image maysignificantly reduce or eliminate signature generation errors that mayotherwise result in the event an image has been cropped at its peripheryfrom its original form. In other words, cropping a portion of an imagethat is given little, if any, weight during the signature generationprocess will have little, if any, effect on the accuracy of thesignature generation process.

The processor 402 then generates the signature information using thedownscaled information from those frames or images that are sufficientlyintra-coded (block 512). As described above, certain image areas may beremoved prior to the signature generation process (block 512) such as,for example, those areas associated with padding (block 508). Inaddition, some or all of any remaining areas may be weighted (block 510)prior to the signature generation process (block 512).

Following the generation of a signature for a selected frame or image,the processor 402 may locally store the signature on the mass storagedevice 408 and/or the volatile memory 406 (block 514). The processor 402may then send signatures and downscaled image information as it isgenerated (block 512) and stored (block 514) or, alternatively,periodically in sets or groups of signatures, to the central processingunit 212 (block 516) for matching analysis and program identification.After generating each signature (block 512) and any storing and sendingactivities (blocks 514 and 516), the processor 402 waits for anotherimage or frame (block 500).

An example signature generation process that may be used to implementblock 512 of FIG. 5 is discussed below in connection with FIGS. 6-13. Ingeneral, the data acquisition unit 206 (FIG. 2) generates videosignatures by calculating the centroids or centers of mass for each ofthe image color components (e.g., Red, Green, Blue, Yellow, etc.) andbrightness components (e.g., Black/White). In particular, each center ofmass or centroid is calculated using a downscaled image (e.g., a subsetof the frequency coefficients and, thus, a subset of spatial domainpixel values) extracted from each of the frequency domain macro blocksmaking up an image or frame. Of course, as noted above, certain areasmay be eliminated if associated with padding and/or may be weighted toreduce or eliminate the effects of image cropping.

The center of mass calculations or centroid calculations sum the momentsof the downscaled image pixel values. In particular, to calculate thehorizontal (e.g., x-axis) position within the frame or image for animage component center of mass or centroid, the value for each pixel ismultiplied by its column number within its associated image or frame,the individual moments are summed, and the sum is divided by a maximumcolumn moment value to provide a normalized horizontal position for thecenter of mass or centroid for that image component. Similarly, tocalculate the vertical (e.g., y-axis) position within the frame or imagefor the center of mass or centroid, the value for each pixel ismultiplied by its row number within the frame, the individual momentsare summed, and the sum is divided by a maximum row moment value toprovide a normalized vertical position for the center of mass orcentroid for that image component. Mathematically, the normalizedhorizontal and vertical positions of the centroid for an image component(i.e., a particular color or brightness) “I” can be expressed as apercentage using Equations 1 and 2 below. In Equations 1 and 2, thevalue “C” is the total number of columns (e.g., the number of pixels perline) within the image or frame for which the signature is beingcalculated, the value “R” is the total number of rows (e.g., lines), andthe values I[r][c] are the values for the pixel at row “r” and column“c” for component “I” (e.g., Red, Green, Blue, Yellow, brightness,etc.).

$\begin{matrix}{{centroid}_{x} = \frac{100{\sum\limits_{r = 0}^{R - 1}\; {\sum\limits_{c = 0}^{c = {C - 1}}\; {c*{{I\lbrack r\rbrack}\lbrack c\rbrack}}}}}{C{\sum\limits_{r = 0}^{R - 1}\; {\sum\limits_{c = 0}^{C - 1}\; {{I\lbrack r\rbrack}\lbrack c\rbrack}}}}} & {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 1} \\{{centroid}_{y} = \frac{100{\sum\limits_{r = 0}^{R - 1}\; {\sum\limits_{c = 0}^{c = {C - 1}}\; {r*{{I\lbrack r\rbrack}\lbrack c\rbrack}}}}}{R{\sum\limits_{r = 0}^{R - 1}\; {\sum\limits_{c = 0}^{C - 1}\; {{I\lbrack r\rbrack}\lbrack c\rbrack}}}}} & {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 2}\end{matrix}$

Of course, as noted above, images or frames may be weighted to eliminateor reduce the effects of cropping and the like. As a result, the valuesI[r][c] (i.e., the downscaled image pixel values) may be different fromthe original image or frame. In addition, the above centroid or centerof mass calculations are normalized. Using normalized centroidinformation to generate signatures for images or frames or sequences ofsignatures for a video sequence can reduce or eliminate the effects ofimage scaling, shifting, etc.

FIG. 6 is an example of an image or frame 600 for which a signature canbe calculated using the method described above in connection withEquations 1 and 2. To clearly illustrate the manner in which signatureinformation is generated using Equations 1 and 2, the image or frame 600includes four circles 602, 604, 606 and 608, each of which is a purecolor within a particular color model. For example, the circles 602-608may be red, green, blue and yellow, respectively. In addition, to keepthe example simple, the colored circles 602-608 are of equal and uniformbrightness.

Using Equations 1 and 2 above to generate the normalized horizontal andvertical coordinates for the centroids or centers of mass for each ofthe colors and brightness components of the image 600 results in the setof coordinate pairs (X₁, Y₁), (X₁, Y₃), (X₂, Y₂), (X₃, Y₁), and (X₃,Y₃). The pair (X₁, Y₁) is the centroid of the color component associatedwith the circle 608, (X₁, Y₃) is the centroid of the color componentassociated with the circle 606, (X₂, Y₂) is the centroid of thebrightness associated with the image 600, (X₃, Y₁) is the centroid ofthe color component associated with the circle 602, and (X₃, Y₃) iscentroid of the color component associated with the circle 604.

The set of normalized coordinate pairs for the centroids or centers ofmass of the various color and brightness components that combine tocompose the image or frame 600 are substantially uniquely representativeof the image 600. For instance, moving only the circle 602 horizontallytoward the right of the image 600 will significantly affect thehorizontal component of the centroid for the circle 602 (e.g., the valueX₃ will move accordingly).

The set of normalized coordinate pairs for the image 600 can be used inseveral manners to define a signature for the image 600. For example,the signature for the image 600 may be defined as a collection or set ofthe centroid coordinate pairs for each component color and/or brightnessmaking up an image. In particular, a signature “S” for an image could bedefined as S=(Red_(x), Red_(y), Green_(y), Green_(y), Blue_(r),Blue_(y), Yellow_(y), Yellow_(y), Brightness_(x), Brightness_(y)), whereRed is the horizontal position of the centroid for the color red,Red_(y) is the vertical position of the centroid for the color red, etc.Accordingly, the signature for the example image 600 calculated usingsuch a collection or set is S=(X₃, Y₁, X₃, Y₃, X₁, Y₃, X₁, Y₁, X₂, Y₂).

Alternatively, a signature based on the normalized coordinates of thecolor and brightness image components can be formed using relativeposition information between two or more of the image components. Forexample, a signature can be formed using vectors or relative movement orlocation information for several image components based on the absolutenormalized coordinates for one image component. In the case of theexample image 600, if the absolute coordinates for the centroid of thecolor component red are used (i.e., X₃, Y₁), the positions of theremaining components (i.e., green, blue, yellow and brightness) aredescribed relative to red and one another and follow a path 610 withinthe image 600. Thus, the position of the centroid for the greencomponent can be defined relative to the red component, the position ofthe centroid for the blue component relative to the green component, theposition of the centroid for the yellow component relative to the bluecomponent and the position of the brightness component relative to theyellow component. Such a signature may be expressed mathematically asshown in Equation 3 below.

S=(ΔX _(g) ,ΔY _(g) ,ΔX _(b) ,ΔY _(b) ,ΔX _(y) ,ΔY _(y) ,ΔX _(bght) ,ΔY_(bght))  Equation 3

The delta X and Y values represent horizontal and vertical displacementsfrom the horizontal and vertical positions of the preceding centroidwithin the set of centroid positions making up the signature “S.” Thus,the values ΔX_(g) and ΔY_(g) represent the difference between thecoordinates for the centroid of the green component and the redcomponent (i.e., ΔX_(g)=X₃−X₃=0 and ΔY_(g)=Y₃−Y₁), the values ΔX_(b) andΔY_(b) represent the difference between the coordinates for the centroidof the blue component and the green component (i.e., ΔX_(b)=X₁−X₃ andΔY_(b)=Y₃−Y₃=0), etc.

As shown in Equation 3 above, the absolute coordinates for the positionof the centroid of the red component are not included to provide asignature that is not sensitive to shifting or movement of an entireimage within the frame 600. For example, when using a signaturegeneration technique based on relative centroid positions (such as thatprovided by Equation 3 above), a displacement of all four of the circles602-608 by the same horizontal and vertical distances within the frame600 will not affect the signature generated (i.e., the relative centroidcoordinates or positions will not change). Alternatively oradditionally, the positions of one or more of the signature componentssignature may be generated based on the position of the image componentcentroid with respect to a predetermined or fixed reference point.

While the example image 600 of FIG. 6 is described as being based on acolor model having red, green, blue, yellow and brightness components,other color models and, thus, image components could be used instead.For example, many well-known color models including, for example, RGB,HIS, YUV, YCrCb, CIELAB and the like may be used in conjunction with theexample methods and apparatus disclosed herein.

Further, image information may be received by the data acquisition unit206 (FIG. 2) in a form based on one color model and converted to anothercolor model to facilitate and/or improve the signature generationprocess. For example, the data acquisition unit 206 may receive MPEGimage information from the demodulator 202. As described above, MPEGimages or frames are formed using a YUV or YCrCb color model. Duringsignature generation (block 512 of FIG. 5), the data acquisition unit206 may convert the luminance and chrominance information provided bythe YCrCb or YUV models to provide color information for red, green,blue, yellow and brightness components. Because the relationshipsbetween the different color models are well known, a detaileddescription of such a conversion process is not provided herein.

While the above examples and, particularly, Equations 1 and 2, depictthe use of normalized centroid coordinates, non-normalized centroidinformation may be used as well. However, as described below, the use ofnon-normalized centroid information may result in increased sensitivityto image scaling and the like, which may result in a higher probabilityof failing to identify or falsely identifying an image or sequence ofimages (e.g., a video program).

For purposes of clarity, the distribution of components (e.g., colors,brightness, etc.) within the frame or image 600 is greatly simplified.Namely, the color components composing the frame 600 are represented asnon-overlapping, symmetrically distributed circles. Of course, mostimages or frames making up a video program are composed of asignificantly more complex distribution of color and brightnesscomponents than the simplified case shown in FIG. 6.

FIG. 7 depicts an example image or frame 700 in which three imagecomponents (e.g., three colors of a color model) are distributed in amore complex non-uniform manner. For clarity, the image 700 is shown asthree component layers 702, 704 and 706 in which each image component isdistributed in a non-uniform manner. For instance, the layer 702 may bea red layer, the layer 704 may be a green layer and the layer 706 may bea blue layer having respective centroids or centers of mass (X₁, Y₁),(X₂, Y₂) and (X₃, Y₃). One having ordinary skill in the art will readilyappreciate that the signature generation technique described above inconnection with FIG. 6 and Equations 1, 2 and 3 may similarly be appliedto images having more complex component distributions such as the image700 of FIG. 7.

While the signature generation technique described in connection withFIG. 6 above provides substantially unique sets of normalized componentcentroids (i.e., horizontal and vertical coordinate pairs), certaincomponent distributions may result in significantly reduced signatureuniqueness. For example, FIG. 8 depicts a frame or image 800 having acircle 802 of a pure color component (e.g., red, green, blue, etc.) Thecircle 802 has a centroid 804 located at the “+” at the center of thecircle 802. FIG. 9 depicts an example frame or image 900 having twocircles 902 and 904 of a pure color component the same as that composingthe circle 802 of the image 800. A centroid 906 for this color componentof the image 900 is located at the “+.” FIG. 10 depicts another exampleframe or image 1000 having a ring-shaped object 1002 composed of thesame color component as that composing the circles 802, 902 and 904 ofFIGS. 8 and 9. A centroid 1004 for this color component of the image1000 is identically positioned within the image 1000 as the centroids804 and 906 are positioned within the images 800 and 900. Thus, in thisinstance, the centroids for a particular color component for threesubstantially different distributions of that color component are allidentically positioned within their respective images or frames and,thus, cannot be used to uniquely distinguish between the images 800, 900and 1000.

Another difficulty that can arise when attempting to generate uniquesignatures for video images occurs with images having substantiallysymmetric component distributions. FIGS. 11 and 12 are example frames orimages 1100 and 1200 that contain relatively symmetric distributions ofa particular component. In particular, the frame 1100 contains threeidentical elliptical shapes 1102, 1104 and 1106, each of which iscomposed of a single component (e.g., a single color component). UsingEquations 1 and 2 above, the center of mass or centroid of the componentdistribution shown in FIG. 11 is located at (X₁, Y₁), which isdesignated within the image 1100 using a “+” sign at reference numeral1108.

FIG. 12 also contains three elliptical shapes 1202, 1204 and 1206 thatare composed of the same component and are of the same shape and size asthe shapes 1102, 1104 and 1106 of FIG. 11. Although the shapes 1202,1204 and 1206 are distributed within the image or frame 1200 in asubstantially different manner than the shapes 1102, 1104 and 1106 aredistributed within the frame 1100, using Equations 1 and 2 above togenerate a centroid for the component distribution within the frame 1200yields a centroid location 1208 that is identical to the centroidlocation 1108 of the component distribution of FIG. 11 (i.e., X₁, Y₁).

Those having ordinary skill in the art will, of course, recognize thatin practice, most images (e.g., color images) include more than onecomponent (e.g., red, green, blue, etc.). As a result, even if thecentroid for one of the image components fails to be uniquely associatedwith that image, the remaining components may, nevertheless, provide aset of centroids that is substantially unique for purposes ofidentifying that image. However, signatures composed of fewersubstantially unique component centroids (i.e., the set of centroidlocations is less unique) can significantly decrease the reliability ofimage identifications (e.g., misidentifications may occur) based onthose sets of centroids.

As described in greater detail in connection with FIG. 13 below, asignature for a frame or image can be made more unique by sub-dividingthe image or frame into a plurality or regions or areas, calculating thecomponent centroids for these sub-divided regions or areas and forming asignature for the frame or image including component centroids for theoverall image and the component centroids for the sub-divided regions orareas. Thus, a signature generated in this manner is less sensitive tothe aforementioned problems discussed in connection with FIGS. 8-12above.

FIG. 13 depicts an example frame or image 1300 that contains threeidentical elliptical shapes 1302, 1304 and 1306, all of which arecomposed of the same component (e.g., a single color). As depicted bythe dashed lines, the image 1300 has been sub-divided into fourquadrants labeled Q0, Q1, Q2 and Q4. The centroid for the overall image1300 is located at the “+” designated by the reference numeral 1306 andthe centroids for the quadrants Q0, Q1, Q2 and Q3 are designated by the“+” signs designated by respective reference numerals 1308, 1310, 1312and 1314, respectively.

Thus, when an image is partitioned or sub-divided into four sub-images,regions or areas, each image component (e.g., a color or brightnesscomponent) may be represented using five centroids (i.e., fivehorizontal and vertical coordinate pairs or ten values), one of whichcorresponds to the overall image and the remaining four of whichcorrespond to the four sub-images or regions. For an image containingred, green, blue, yellow and brightness components, set containing atotal of twenty-five centroids (i.e., twenty five horizontal andvertical coordinate pairs or fifty values) may be used to form asignature for the image or frame. An example of such a signature can berepresented as depicted in Table 4 below.

TABLE 4 RED GREEN BLUE YELLOW BRIGHTNESS OVER- X₁, Y₁ X₂, Y₂ X₃, Y₃ X₄,Y₄ X₅, Y₅ ALL IMAGE Q0 X₆, Y₆ X₇, Y₇ X₈, Y₈ X₉, Y₉ X₁₀, Y₁₀ Q1 X₁₁, Y₁₁X₁₂, Y₁₂ X₁₃, Y₁₃ X₁₄, Y₁₄ X₁₅, Y₁₅ Q2 X₁₆, Y₁₆ X₁₇, Y₁₇ X₁₈, Y₁₈ X₁₉,Y₁₉ X₂₀, Y₂₀ Q3 X₂₁, Y₂₁ X₂₂, Y₂₂ X₂₃, Y₂₃ X₂₄, Y₂₄ X₂₅, Y₂₅

Of course, more or fewer image components may be used if desired.Additionally, fewer or more partitions, sub-images or regions or areasmay be used. For example, sub-regions may be further sub-divided in arecursive manner to achieve any desired level of signature uniqueness.In other words, a greater number of sub-images or sub-divided areas maybe defined within an image or frame to generate a signature having agreater amount of distinguishing information. Further, the sub-imageareas or regions do not have to be identically shaped and sized. Forexample, relatively smaller sub-divisions or sub-images may be usedwithin the central region of an overall image and relatively largersub-divisions may be used within the peripheral regions of an image.Still further, while the signature generation example given inconnection with FIG. 13 uses normalized non-relative centroidcoordinates or locations, relative centroid locations as discussed abovemay be used instead.

The above-described signature generation techniques employing sub-imagesor regions within images or frames to increase signature uniqueness canbe used to improve the reliability of an image identification process,particularly in cases where there is a significant amount of symmetryamong images being identified. However, there are still further problemsthat may be encountered for certain types of images or frames. Forexample, images having a relatively constant distribution of componentsacross the entire image tend to produce centroids that are locatedwithin the center of the frame or image, regardless of the color, hueand/or brightness of the image.

Centroids calculated for frames or images having a constant value thatis substantially greater than zero will all be relatively stable andcentered within the images. Thus, an entirely medium gray image and anentirely dark gray image will both result in centroids that are centeredwithin the image, thereby making it impossible to distinguish these twoimages on the basis of their image component centroids. In general,these types of images contain little, if any, information and may, forexample, be perceived as blank images.

For frames or images having a constant value that is near to zero, videosignal noise may cause the centroid to vary from frame to frame, even ifthe images are perceptually identical (e.g., all the images are blank).In such a case, calculating the centroid based on Equations 1 and 2above yields unstable results (i.e., signature values) that maysignificantly reduce the reliability with which the video programmingassociated with these images can be identified.

An alternative signature generation technique may be employed for theimages or frames that contain relatively constant information (e.g., thedistribution of one or more image components is relatively uniformwithin the frames or images), such as those described above. Inparticular, if during execution of the example method shown in FIG. 5 itis determined that the majority of spatial domain values (e.g., thedownscaled image) are all about the same value, block 512 may generatethe signature for the frame or image being processed using such analternative signature generation technique. One such alternativesignature generation technique may be based on calculating componentcoordinates using Equation 4 below.

X=−100  Equation 4

Y=100*K/K _(max)  Equation 5

The values X and Y are the representative horizontal and verticalcoordinates of a substituted or pseudo-centroid, the value “K” is anestimated constant value such as, for example, a trend or average pixelvalue(s) for a component of the image being processed, and the valueK_(max) is a maximum possible average pixel value for the component. Asnoted above, Equation 4 does not provide an actual geometric centroidbut, rather, a pair of coordinates that can be used to serve thefunction of a substantially unique coordinate pair for a relativelyblank or uniform image. Thus, using Equation 4 to calculaterepresentative coordinates for one image entirely filled with mediumgray and another image entirely filled with dark gray will yielddifferent pseudo-centroids or coordinate pairs that enable substantiallyunique signatures for these images to be formed.

Yet another difficulty in generating substantially unique signaturesoccurs for images that are composed primarily of dark foreground (e.g.,dark text) on a substantially white background. In these cases, therelatively high (and constant) background values associated with thewhite portions of the image have a much greater effect on the center ofmass or centroid than the relatively low foreground values associatedwith the darker foreground.

As a result, signatures formed using centroids for these kinds of imageswill typically not be sufficiently unique to identify differencesbetween, for example, an image containing one text block in a givenlocation and another image containing a different text block in the sameor a different location. In these cases, the image values may beinverted (i.e., the image may be inverted so that the foreground (e.g.,textual information) is relatively light and the background isrelatively dark) so that the foreground has a much more significanteffect on the centroid of the image. The pixel values associated withthe inverted image are then used to generate the centroid(s) and, thus,the signature for the image(s). However, when using Equations 1 and 2described above to calculated the centroid values, the centroid valuesmay be negated (i.e., multiplied by −1) to indicated that the centroidvalues correspond to an inverted image.

As discussed above, the data acquisition unit 206 (FIG. 2) receivesvideo frames or images (e.g., compressed video or MPEG frames) from thedemodulator 202 (FIG. 2) and generates signatures and downscaled imagesfor some or all of these received frames or images using, for example,the methods described above. As described in greater detail inconnection with FIGS. 14 and 15 below, the central processing unit 210(FIG. 2) is configured to compare sequences of signatures received fromthe data acquisition unit 206 (FIG. 2) to reference sequences ofsignatures associated with known video programs (e.g., televisioncommercials, television shows, etc.) to identify one or more selectedprograms and forward the unidentified video clip to the central facility216.

Initially, the central processing unit 210 (FIG. 2) receives signatureinformation from the data acquisition unit 206 (FIG. 2) (block 1400).The central processing unit 210 then determines whether the receivedsignature information is the start or beginning of a sequence (block1402). If the received signature information is the start of a sequenceat block 1402, the central processing unit 210 selects one or morereference signature sequences from a database or library of signaturesequences (block 1404), which may be stored within the memory or massstorage device 214 (FIG. 2), and appends the selected signaturesequences to a dynamic accumulation table or intermediate results table.On the other hand, if the central processing unit 210 determines atblock 1402 that the received signature information is not the start of asequence, then control is passed to block 1406.

The reference signatures accumulated at block 1404 (candidate signaturesequences) are to be compared to the sequence of signatures currentlybeing received (suspect signature sequence) to determine if an exact orsubstantial match exists and, if such a match exists, identify the videoprogram associated with the suspect signature sequence. In general,signature sequences may be represented as [S_(A)][S_(B)][S_(C)][S_(D)] .. . , where S_(A) is a first signature (e.g., a set of image componentcentroids generated as set forth above) for a frame or image, S_(B) isanother signature (e.g., another set of image component centroids)associated with a subsequent frame or image, etc. Accordingly, oneuseful manner of selecting candidate or reference signature sequences(block 1404) in a case where the initial signature received at block1400 is S_(A) is to select all signature sequences from the database orlibrary of known signature sequences that include the signature S_(A)within a predetermined number of signatures from the beginning of thesequence. For example, the signature sequences listed below in Table 2,if in the database or library, may be selected at block 1404 andappended to the accumulation or intermediate results table. As can berecognized from Table 2 below, the selected signature sequences do notnecessarily begin with the signature S_(A) but, instead, include thesignature S_(A). From the example group of selected signature sequencesshown in Table 2, only signature sequences including the signature S_(A)within the first three signatures may have, for example, been selected.

TABLE 2 REFERENCE Sequence SIGNATURE # SEQUENCES 1[S_(A)][S_(F)][S_(K)][S_(N)][S_(Z)] 2[S_(A)][S_(H)][S_(L)][S_(N)][S_(V)] 3[S_(A)][S_(F)][S_(K)][S_(P)][S_(Q)] 4[S_(A)][S_(F)][S_(G)][S_(P)][S_(J)] 5[S_(X)][S_(A)][S_(F)][S_(G)][S_(N)] 6[S_(X)][S_(Y)][S_(A)][S_(G)][S_(N)]

Following the comparison at block 1406, the central processing unit 210updates match results for each of the reference signature sequences(block 1408) in the accumulation or intermediate results table. Ingeneral, the match results track, for each reference sequence ofsignatures, if the individual signatures within a sequence of signaturesgenerated by the data acquisition unit 206 (FIG. 2) match correspondingsignatures within the reference sequences of signatures. Thus, the matchresults can be represented within a table in which each row of the tablecorresponds to a different reference signature sequence and each columnof the table corresponds to a relative temporal position within thesequence. Table 3 below is an example table that represents the matchresults after having received the signatures S_(A) and S_(F). The value“1” indicates a match occurred at block 1406, the value “0” indicates amatch did not occur and “X” indicates a position within the sequencethat has not yet been tested (i.e., compared to a signature receivedfrom the data acquisition unit 206).

TABLE 3 Sequence # MATCH RESULTS 1 1 1 X X X 2 1 0 X X X 3 1 1 X X X 4 11 X X X 5 0 1 1 X X 6 0 0 1 0 0

The processing unit 210 then eliminates non-matching reference signaturesequences from the accumulation or intermediate results table (e.g.,from Table 2). For example, sequence number two may be eliminated forhaving at least one non-matching signature. However, in some cases itmay be desirable to only eliminate sequences having two non-matchingsignatures or a greater number of non-matching signatures. For thisexample, only sequences having three or more non-matching signatures areeliminated at block 1410. As a result, only signature sequence six iseliminated following the receipt and processing of the second signatureS_(F).

Continuing with the above example, following the receipt of thesignature S_(F), each of the remaining signature sequences has at leasttwo untested positions. As a result, the processing unit 210 will loopthrough blocks 1400-1420 at least two additional times. If thesignatures S_(G) and S_(N) are received as third and fourth signatures,respectively, no additional comparisons will be required at block 1406after receiving the signature S_(N) (i.e., there are no untestedsequence positions at that point). Thus, the state of the match resultsfor the above example is as depicted in Table 4 below.

TABLE 4 Sequence # MATCH RESULTS 1 1 1 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 3 1 1 0 0 0 4 11 1 0 0 5 0 1 1 1 1 6 0 0 1 0 0

As can be seen from Table 4 above, signature sequences one, two, threeand six have been eliminated following the receipt of the signatureS_(N) because these sequences contained at least three non-matchingsignatures upon receipt of the signature S_(N).

The central processing unit 210 examines the match results to determineif there is a matching sequence (block 1414). In the case of the aboveexample, signature sequence five is an identical match and, thus, is amatching sequence. However, in some cases the processing unit 210 mayconsider a substantial match (i.e., a non-identical match) sufficient.For example, the processing unit 210 may consider three out of fourmatches for a signature sequence to be a matching sequence. Additionallyor alternatively, the central processing unit 210 may consider thereference signature sequence having the greatest number of matchingsignatures to be a matching sequence, regardless of the percentage ofmatching signatures. Still further, if two or more reference signaturesequences result in the same percentage or number of matches, thecentral processing unit 210 may, based on historical information,identify the matching reference sequence of signatures as that sequencethat occurs most frequently (i.e., the most probable sequence ofsignatures). More generally, the number or percentage of matchingsignatures required to satisfy a matching condition depends on whatlevel of inaccurate video program identification is acceptable for aparticular application. In other words, if a relatively low level ofinaccurate video program identification is acceptable, then a lowerpercentage or number of matching signatures may be acceptable to satisfya match condition. On the other hand, if a relatively high level ofinaccurate video program identification is acceptable, then a higherpercentage or number of matching signatures may be acceptable to satisfya match condition.

In any event, if the central processing unit 210 determines that asignature sequence match has been found at block 1414, the centralprocessing unit 210 then identifies the video sequence or programassociated with the matching reference signature sequence (block 1416).Any desired data structures and/or database search techniques may beused. For example, once a matching sequence of signatures has beenidentified, the sequence number or identifier associated with thematching sequence of signatures may be used to access (e.g., via anindexing or lookup method) textual information associated with the audioand/or video program corresponding to that identifier or sequencenumber. Alternatively, a set of tables organized in a linked tree-likedata structure may be used. In particular, each of the tables may beindexed using centroids or coordinate pairs (e.g., horizontal andvertical coordinates). In this manner, a first coordinate pair orcentroid associated with a signature is used to index to a link to asubsequent table. The next coordinate pair of the signature is then usedto index within the subsequent table to another table. This processcontinues until all coordinate pairs associated with all of thesignatures within a signature sequence have been exhausted at a finaltable. The last coordinate pair is then used to index to textualinformation (e.g., in the form of metadata) describing the video programassociated with the sequence of signatures information (i.e., sequenceof centroids or coordinate pairs used to index through the linkedtables). A searchable tree-like data structure such as that describedabove provides a relatively short search time. In the case where thevideo programs being identified are television commercials a relativelyfaster search technique may be highly advantageous because a relativelylarge number of commercials (e.g., 1,000,000 or more) may be containedwithin the database to be searched.

If, on the other hand, at block 1414 the processing unit 210 determinesthat a matching sequence cannot be found, the processing unit 210determines if a manual identification is required or desired (block1417). If, at block 1414, a manual identification is required, a humanoperator may intervene and manually identify the video program (block1418). For example, the human operator may view the video sequence todetermine the identity of the sequence. If the video program identifiedby the human operator at block 1418 was previously not contained withinthe database, the sequence may be added to the database.

On the other hand, if the video program was already stored in thedatabase but was associated with a different sequence, the operator mayupdate the reference information to include possible signature sequencesfor that video program. In some cases, multiple signature sequences maybe needed to represent a single video program that can be conveyed tothe demodulator 202 using somewhat different encoding at a broadcaststation (not shown). An efficient manner to store and search multiplesignature sequences for a single video program is to represent thesequence of signature positions for which multiple signatures arepossible using a logical OR data structure. For example, a referencesequence of signatures may be expressed as[S_(A)][S_(B)[S_(N)][S_(G)][S_(F)]S_(K)], where the “|” means OR. Thus,continuing the example, the signature sequences[S_(A)][S_(B)][S_(G)][S_(F)], [S_(A)][S_(N)[S_(G)]S_(K)],[S_(A)][S_(B)][S_(G)][S_(K)] and [S_(A)][S_(N)][S_(G)][S_(F)] are allmatches to the reference sequence of signatures and, thus, are allassociated with the same video program. Storing reference signatureinformation using the above-described OR-based data structure cansignificantly reduce the amount of memory needed to maintain a libraryof reference signatures and can substantially reduce the amount of timeneeded to search such a library of reference signatures for matchingsignatures. The activities associated with blocks 1418 and 1420 may beperformed at, for example, the central facility 216 (FIG. 2).

While the example method described in connection with FIGS. 14 and 15 isdescribed as being executed within the central processing unit 210, someor all of the functions associated with the example method may beperformed within the data acquisition unit 206 or any other deviceassociated with the system 200 shown in FIG. 2.

Although certain methods, apparatus and articles of manufacture havebeen described herein, the scope of coverage of this patent is notlimited thereto. To the contrary, this patent covers all methods,apparatus and articles of manufacture fairly falling within the scope ofthe appended claims either literally or under the doctrine ofequivalents.

1. A system to generate a signature associated with a video program, thesystem comprising: a frame scanner to scan video frames associated withthe video program, the frame scanner to select a video frame based on anumber of intra-coded macro blocks within the video frame; a scaledimage extractor to extract a scaled image from intra-coded macro blocksextracted from the video frame; and a signature generator to calculate aplurality of centroids associated with video frame based on the scaledimage and to form the signature based on the plurality of centroids. 2.A system as defined in claim 1, wherein the frame scanner is toselectively send substantially intra-coded video frames to theintra-coded macro block extractor.
 3. A system as defined in claim 1,wherein the video program includes one of a television commercial and atelevision show.
 4. A system as defined in claim 1, wherein the videoframe is compressed according to a digital video compression standard.5. A system as defined in claim 4, wherein the digital video compressionstandard is based on the MPEG standard.
 6. A system as defined in claim1, wherein the plurality of centroids are associated with a plurality ofimage components.
 7. A system as defined in claim 6, wherein theplurality of image components are associated with a color model.
 8. Asystem as defined in claim 1, wherein the plurality of centroids areassociated with a plurality of areas within the video frame.
 9. A systemas defined in claim 1, wherein the number or proportion of intra-codedmacro blocks within the frame is a substantial portion of all macroblocks within the frame.
 10. A system as defined in claim 1, wherein thescaled image extractor is to extract only a portion of each of theintra-coded macro blocks.
 11. A system as defined in claim 10, whereinthe portion of each of the intra-coded macro blocks includes only DCcoefficients.
 12. A system as defined in claim 1, wherein the scaledimage extractor is to convert the scaled image information to spatialdomain information and the signature generator is to use the spatialdomain information to calculate the image component centroidinformation.
 13. A system as defined in claim 1, wherein the signaturegenerator is to weight the scaled image information prior to generatingthe video signature.
 14. A method to generate a signature associatedwith a video program, the method comprising: scanning video framesassociated with the video program; selecting a video frame based on anumber of intra-coded macro blocks within the video frame; extractingintra-coded macro blocks from the video frame; extracting a scaled imagefrom the intra-coded macro blocks; calculating a plurality of centroidsassociated with video frame based on the scaled image; and forming thesignature based on the plurality of centroids.
 15. A method as definedin claim 14, wherein the video program includes one of a televisioncommercial and a television show.
 16. A method as defined in claim 14,wherein the video frame is compressed according to a digital videocompression standard.
 17. A method as defined in claim 16, wherein thedigital video compression standard is based on the MPEG standard.
 18. Amethod as defined in claim 14, wherein the plurality of centroids areassociated with a plurality of image components.
 19. A method as definedin claim 18, wherein the plurality of image components are associatedwith a color model.
 20. A method as defined in claim 14, wherein theplurality of centroids are associated with a plurality of areas withinthe video frame.
 21. A method as defined in claim 14, wherein the numberor proportion of intra-coded macro blocks within the frame is asubstantial portion of all macro blocks within the frame.
 22. A methodas defined in claim 14, wherein extracting the scaled image comprisesextracting only a portion of each of the intra-coded macro blocks.
 23. Amethod as defined in claim 22, wherein the portion of each of theintra-coded macro blocks includes only DC coefficients.
 24. A method asdefined in claim 14 further comprising converting the scaled imageinformation to spatial domain information and using the spatial domaininformation to calculate the image component centroid information.
 25. Amethod as defined in claim 14 further comprising weighting the scaledimage information prior to generating the video signature.
 26. A machinereadable medium having instructions stored thereon that, when executed,cause a machine to at least: scan video frames associated with a videoprogram; select a video frame based on a number of intra-coded macroblocks within the video frame; extract intra-coded macro blocks from thevideo frame; extract a scaled image from the intra-coded macro blocks;calculate a plurality of centroids associated with video frame based onthe scaled image; and form a signature based on the plurality ofcentroids.
 27. A machine readable instruction as defined in claim 26,wherein the video program includes one of a television commercial and atelevision show.
 28. A machine readable instruction as defined in claim26, wherein the video frame is compressed according to a digital videocompression standard.
 29. A machine readable instruction as defined inclaim 26, wherein the digital video compression standard is based on theMPEG standard.
 30. A machine readable instruction as defined in claim26, wherein the plurality of centroids are associated with a pluralityof image components.
 31. A machine readable instruction as defined inclaim 30, wherein the plurality of image components are associated witha color model.
 32. A machine readable instruction as defined in claim26, wherein the plurality of centroids are associated with a pluralityof areas within the video frame.
 33. A machine readable instruction asdefined in claim 26, wherein the number or proportion of intra-codedmacro blocks within the frame is a substantial portion of all macroblocks within the frame.
 34. A machine readable instruction as definedin claim 26, wherein the machine is to extract only a portion of each ofthe intra-coded macro blocks.
 35. A machine readable instruction asdefined in claim 34, wherein the portion of each of the intra-codedmacro blocks includes only DC coefficients.
 36. A machine readableinstruction as defined in claim 26 wherein the machine is further causedto convert the scaled image information to spatial domain informationand using the spatial domain information to calculate the imagecomponent centroid information.
 37. A machine readable instruction asdefined in claim 26 wherein the machine is further caused to weight thescaled image information prior to generating the video signature.